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Nuclear energy currently contributes approximately 10 % of the worldwide energy mix.1 Nuclear energy generation is a form of low-carbon electricity, typically run as base-load, which alongside renewables can help nations toward climate change goals. Nuclear fission thermal reactors make up the majority of the reactors operating today. Nuclear fusion on the other hand is a promising alternative which produces less radioactive waste and does not have a reliance on the finite source of uranium fuel. Eurofer-97, a reduced activation ferritic-martensitic (RAFM) steel, will be used as a structural material for fusion reactors. The earliest literature reference to RAFM steels originated from 1994 by Abe et al.2 One option for the European demonstration fusion reactor (DEMO) is to use a water-cooled lead-lithium (PbLi) breeder blanket (WCLL BB) design for heat extraction. Breeder blankets will be used to generate a source of tritium, for the fusion reaction with deuterium.
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The interaction of metals and alloys with aqueous environments is ubiquitous, leading to oxide formation (passivity) or corrosion in many cases. Although these phenomena have significant importance across various industries and domains of materials science, the fundamental atomic-scale mechanisms by which corrosion and oxide formation operate are still unclear. Oxide films can have complex chemistry and texture, especially at the metal-oxide interface which acts as the primary barrier from solution interaction. The Zr-H2O system has industrial and academic interest due to its use in nuclear reactors.