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Carbon dioxide (CO2) saturated brines containing high levels of calcium are commonly encountered across the energy sector: from hydrocarbon recovery to the harvesting of geothermal energy and re-deposition of CO2 for permanent storage. These brines originate in deep underground reservoirs at elevated pressures and temperatures. Despite susceptibility to corrosive attack under these conditions, carbon steels are the preferred choice of pipeline materials for such processes, attributable to their low cost, availability and ease of manufacture.
Scale is an adherent deposit of inorganic compounds precipitated from water onto surfaces. Most oilfield waters contain certain amounts of dissolved calcium, barium or strontium salts. The mineral scale can be formed by chemical reactions in the formation water itself, by mixing of formation water with injected seawater, or by mixing of the well streams of two incompatible oilfield waters. In carbonate reservoirs, when calcium is deposited as calcium sulfate or calcium carbonate scale, a loss of production and increased maintenance expenses can result. Therefore, effective mitigation of scaling potential is of importance to the oil producers.